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Faces of the phenomenon of expectations

stmm. 2023 (2): 28-64

DOI https://doi.org/10.15407/sociology2023.02.028

Full text: http://stmm.in.ua/archive/ukr/2023-2/4.pdf

MYKOLA SHULGA, Corresponding member of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Doctor of Sciences in Sociology, Professor, Principal Research Fellow at the Department of Social Psychology, Institute of Sociology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (12, Shovkovychna St., Kyiv, 01021)

chebrec@gmail.com

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7763-7195

The article examines the vision of the phenomenon of expectations in the works of sociologists. For this purpose, an analysis of the works of M. Weber, T. Parsons, A. Schutz, V. Vroom, H. Heckhausen, N. Luhmann, P. Berger, Th. Luckmann, Y. Habermas, Z. Bauman, I. Hoffman, H. Garfinkel. The study showed that expectation is a complex and diverse phenomenon that cannot be reduced to a single denominator. The traditional method of organizing this colorful phenomenon by means of selection according to one or more criteria of classes and types of expectations has its limitations. After all, classification as a method of explanation can be the cause of false conclusions and interpretations, since the same manifestations of expectations can hide different reasons for their occurrence. K. Levin called this way of theorizing Aristotelian. The scientist saw a way out of this situation in the transition to the Galilean way of thinking. K. Levin called this transition the transition from the abstract-classifying to the constructive method. The latter means searching for the reasons for the existence of natural and social phenomena. This way of thinking is demonstrated in the works of the above-mentioned sociologists. Thanks to the analysis of their works, it was possible to distinguish four types of expectations. The first is pre-intentional expectations, the second is rational-activity expectations, the third is communicative-role expectations, and the fourth is background expectations. The essence of the pre-intentional type consists in unlimited dreams, fantasies, illusions, imaginations, which are concentrated in the consciousness of the subject of expectations, and which have no influence on the external world. The rational-activity type is an anticipatory reflection of object-transforming activity, processes of acquisition or appropriation of objects, which takes the form of intentions, plans, calculations, and the purpose of activity. The communicative-role type is manifested in the observance by interaction partners of standardized norms, rules, requirements, in the reproduction of status and role standards in behavior. The essence of background expectations lies in the presence of fixed attitudes in the behavior of the individual, in the standardized features of everyday processes, which are accepted by a person in everyday life on faith.

Keywords: Aristotelian method of thinking; Galilean method of thinking; expectations; pre-intentional expectations; rational-active expectations; communicative-role expectations; background expectations

References

  1. Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Retrieved from: https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4899477M/Social_learning_theory

  2. Bauman, Z. (1999). Sociological theory of Postmodern. Human and Society. [In Russian]. Kyiv: Institute of Sociology, NAS of Ukraine.

  3. Berger, P.L., Luckmann, Th. (2011). The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. Open Road Media. Retrieved from: https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Social_Construction_of_Reality.html?id=Jcma84waN3AC

  4. Garfinkel, G. (1967). Studies of the routine grounds of everyday activities. In: Studies in Ethnomethodology (ch. 2, pp. 35-75). New Jersy: Prentice Hall Inc. Retrieved from: https://www.scribd.com/doc/72812161/Harold-Garfinkel-Studies-in-Ethnomethodology-1967

  5. Habermas, J. (1981). Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns. Frankfurt am Main.

  6. Habermas, J. (1984). Theory of Communicative Action Vol. 1: Reason and the Rationalization of Society. Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/theoryofcommunic01habe

  7. Heckhausen, J., Heckhausen, H. (2018). Motivaton and Action. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_1 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_1

  8. Hoffman, I. (1999). Presenting of Self in Everyday Life. Human and society. [In Russian]. Kyiv: Institute of Sociology, NAS of Ukraine.

  9. Lewin, K. (1931). The conflict between Aristotelian and Galilean modes of thought in contemporary psychology. Journal of General Psychology. 5, 141-176. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1931.9918387 https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1931.9918387

  10. Luhmann, N. (1984). Soziale Systeme. Grundriß einer allgemeinen Theorie. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp.

  11. Luhmann, N. (1993). "Was ist der Fall?" und "Was steckt dahinter?" Die zwei Soziologien und die Gesellschaftstheorie. https://doi.org/10.1515/zfsoz-1993-0401 https://doi.org/10.1515/zfsoz-1993-0401

  12. Luhmann, N. (2002). Einführung in die Systemtheorie. Heidelberg: Carl-Auer-Systeme Verlag. Retrieved from: https://www.carl-auer.de/einfuhrung-in-die-systemtheorie

  13. Luhmann, N. (2012). Theory of Society (vol. 1). Stanford University Press. Retrieved from: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780804786478/html

  14. Parsons, Т. (s.a.). The structure of social action: a study in social theory with special reference to a group of recent European writers (2nd ed.). Retrieved from: https://openlibrary.org/books/OL22096408M/The_structure_of_social_action

  15. Schutz, А. (1944). The Stranger: An Essay in Social Psychology. American Journal of Sociology, 49(6). https://doi.org/10.1086/219472

  16. Schutz, A. (1951). Choosing Among Projects of Action. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, XII(2). https://doi.org/10.2307/2103478

  17. Schutz, A. (1962). Collected Papers. Vol. 1. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

  18. Von Neumann, J., & Morgenstern, O. (1947). Theory of games and economic behavior (2nd rev. ed.). Princeton University Press. Retrieved from: https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1947-03159-000

  19. Vroom, V.H. (1994). Work and Motivation. Wiley.

  20. Weber, M. (1962). Basic Concepts of Sociology. New York: Citadel Press. Retrieved from: https://openlibrary.org/books/OL24240668M/Basic_concepts_in_sociology

Received 19.05.2023

Faces of the phenomenon of expectations

stmm. 2023 (2): 28-64

DOI https://doi.org/10.15407/sociology2023.02.028

Full text: http://stmm.in.ua/archive/ukr/2023-2/4.pdf

MYKOLA SHULGA, Corresponding member of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Doctor of Sciences in Sociology, Professor, Principal Research Fellow at the Department of Social Psychology, Institute of Sociology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (12, Shovkovychna St., Kyiv, 01021)

chebrec@gmail.com

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7763-7195

The article examines the vision of the phenomenon of expectations in the works of sociologists. For this purpose, an analysis of the works of M. Weber, T. Parsons, A. Schutz, V. Vroom, H. Heckhausen, N. Luhmann, P. Berger, Th. Luckmann, Y. Habermas, Z. Bauman, I. Hoffman, H. Garfinkel. The study showed that expectation is a complex and diverse phenomenon that cannot be reduced to a single denominator. The traditional method of organizing this colorful phenomenon by means of selection according to one or more criteria of classes and types of expectations has its limitations. After all, classification as a method of explanation can be the cause of false conclusions and interpretations, since the same manifestations of expectations can hide different reasons for their occurrence. K. Levin called this way of theorizing Aristotelian. The scientist saw a way out of this situation in the transition to the Galilean way of thinking. K. Levin called this transition the transition from the abstract-classifying to the constructive method. The latter means searching for the reasons for the existence of natural and social phenomena. This way of thinking is demonstrated in the works of the above-mentioned sociologists. Thanks to the analysis of their works, it was possible to distinguish four types of expectations. The first is pre-intentional expectations, the second is rational-activity expectations, the third is communicative-role expectations, and the fourth is background expectations. The essence of the pre-intentional type consists in unlimited dreams, fantasies, illusions, imaginations, which are concentrated in the consciousness of the subject of expectations, and which have no influence on the external world. The rational-activity type is an anticipatory reflection of object-transforming activity, processes of acquisition or appropriation of objects, which takes the form of intentions, plans, calculations, and the purpose of activity. The communicative-role type is manifested in the observance by interaction partners of standardized norms, rules, requirements, in the reproduction of status and role standards in behavior. The essence of background expectations lies in the presence of fixed attitudes in the behavior of the individual, in the standardized features of everyday processes, which are accepted by a person in everyday life on faith.

Keywords: Aristotelian method of thinking; Galilean method of thinking; expectations; pre-intentional expectations; rational-active expectations; communicative-role expectations; background expectations

References

  1. Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Retrieved from: https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4899477M/Social_learning_theory

  2. Bauman, Z. (1999). Sociological theory of Postmodern. Human and Society. [In Russian]. Kyiv: Institute of Sociology, NAS of Ukraine.

  3. Berger, P.L., Luckmann, Th. (2011). The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. Open Road Media. Retrieved from: https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Social_Construction_of_Reality.html?id=Jcma84waN3AC

  4. Garfinkel, G. (1967). Studies of the routine grounds of everyday activities. In: Studies in Ethnomethodology (ch. 2, pp. 35-75). New Jersy: Prentice Hall Inc. Retrieved from: https://www.scribd.com/doc/72812161/Harold-Garfinkel-Studies-in-Ethnomethodology-1967

  5. Habermas, J. (1981). Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns. Frankfurt am Main.

  6. Habermas, J. (1984). Theory of Communicative Action Vol. 1: Reason and the Rationalization of Society. Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/theoryofcommunic01habe

  7. Heckhausen, J., Heckhausen, H. (2018). Motivaton and Action. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_1 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_1

  8. Hoffman, I. (1999). Presenting of Self in Everyday Life. Human and society. [In Russian]. Kyiv: Institute of Sociology, NAS of Ukraine.

  9. Lewin, K. (1931). The conflict between Aristotelian and Galilean modes of thought in contemporary psychology. Journal of General Psychology. 5, 141-176. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1931.9918387 https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1931.9918387

  10. Luhmann, N. (1984). Soziale Systeme. Grundriß einer allgemeinen Theorie. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp.

  11. Luhmann, N. (1993). "Was ist der Fall?" und "Was steckt dahinter?" Die zwei Soziologien und die Gesellschaftstheorie. https://doi.org/10.1515/zfsoz-1993-0401 https://doi.org/10.1515/zfsoz-1993-0401

  12. Luhmann, N. (2002). Einführung in die Systemtheorie. Heidelberg: Carl-Auer-Systeme Verlag. Retrieved from: https://www.carl-auer.de/einfuhrung-in-die-systemtheorie

  13. Luhmann, N. (2012). Theory of Society (vol. 1). Stanford University Press. Retrieved from: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780804786478/html

  14. Parsons, Т. (s.a.). The structure of social action: a study in social theory with special reference to a group of recent European writers (2nd ed.). Retrieved from: https://openlibrary.org/books/OL22096408M/The_structure_of_social_action

  15. Schutz, А. (1944). The Stranger: An Essay in Social Psychology. American Journal of Sociology, 49(6). https://doi.org/10.1086/219472

  16. Schutz, A. (1951). Choosing Among Projects of Action. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, XII(2). https://doi.org/10.2307/2103478

  17. Schutz, A. (1962). Collected Papers. Vol. 1. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

  18. Von Neumann, J., & Morgenstern, O. (1947). Theory of games and economic behavior (2nd rev. ed.). Princeton University Press. Retrieved from: https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1947-03159-000

  19. Vroom, V.H. (1994). Work and Motivation. Wiley.

  20. Weber, M. (1962). Basic Concepts of Sociology. New York: Citadel Press. Retrieved from: https://openlibrary.org/books/OL24240668M/Basic_concepts_in_sociology

Received 19.05.2023

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